Some notes on the PC(USA)

Written By J .

Origins in the Reformed Tradition (16th Century)
Presbyterianism began during the Protestant Reformation, heavily influenced by John Calvin in Geneva and John Knox, a Scottish reformer who studied under Calvin. Central to their theology were the sovereignty of God, the authority of Scripture, and the idea of salvation by grace through faith. Unlike the episcopal (bishop-led) model, they established a presbyterian polity—a representative system of church governance by elected elders (presbyters).

 

Larger governing bodies like regional Presbyteries and Synods are led by elected elders from churches in their regions (both lay ruling elders and ministers of word and sacrament called teaching elders). This style is sometimes referred to as both “top down and bottom up” because both the larger bodies of Presbytery and Synod reach “down” to govern and each individual church governs laterally and reaches “up” to affect policy at Presbytery and Synod levels.

 

John Calvin in Geneva (1509–1564): Foundations of Reformed Theology

John Calvin, a French theologian and reformer, settled in Geneva and created a system of Reformed theology that emphasized:

  • God's sovereignty

  • The authority of Scripture

  • Covenant theology

  • A distinct form of church governance led by elders rather than bishops or monarchs.

Calvin’s Geneva became a training ground for Protestant reformers across Europe.

John Knox in Scotland (c.1514–1572): Reformation in a Feudal Land

John Knox, a fiery Scottish preacher and former Catholic priest, studied under Calvin in Geneva after being exiled during the reign of Mary Tudor (“Bloody Mary”).
When Knox returned to Scotland in 1559, he brought Calvin’s ideas with him and became the key leader of the Scottish Reformation.

By 1560, the Scottish Parliament officially rejected Roman Catholicism and adopted the Reformed faith. The Book of Discipline and the Scots Confession (1560) laid out the theology and polity of the Church of Scotland, now a Presbyterian church in name and structure.

Between Knox and America: Persecution, Migration, and Mission (1600s)

England and the Puritans

Meanwhile, in England, the Reformation under Henry VIII led to a state-controlled Anglican Church. Many Reformed Christians (including Puritans and Presbyterians) found themselves at odds with the Crown, especially under James I and Charles I, who insisted on uniform worship and episcopal governance.

The English Civil War (1642–1651) briefly gave Presbyterians power under the Westminster Assembly, which produced the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646)—a defining document for many Reformed churches. But the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought renewed persecution of non-Anglicans.

Ireland: The Ulster Scots

In the early 1600s, many Scots migrated to Northern Ireland (Ulster) during the Plantation period, seeking land and religious freedom. These Scots-Irish (Ulster Scots) remained fiercely Presbyterian but faced persecution under English rule.

Crossing the Atlantic: Presbyterians in America (1700s)

Large waves of Scots-Irish immigrants, many of them Presbyterian, began arriving in North America in the late 1600s and early 1700s. They settled primarily in:

  • Pennsylvania, where William Penn promised religious liberty,

  • the Appalachian frontier (Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee),

  • and later in parts of the Midwest.

These immigrants brought with them Presbyterian ministers, governing structures, and the Westminster Confession.

  • In 1706, the first American Presbytery was organized in Philadelphia by seven ministers.

  • By 1717, the Synod of Philadelphia formed, and by 1789, after independence, the first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. was held with John Witherspoon—the only clergyman to sign the Declaration of Independence—as its moderator.

  • Westward expansion across America of the Presbyterian denomination was much slower than other denominations due to the extensive education required of its ordained clergy.

Presbyterianism in America (1700s)
Presbyterianism was brought to North America by Scottish and Irish immigrants. The first presbytery in the colonies was organized in Philadelphia in 1706, followed by the formation of the Synod of Philadelphia in 1717. Early American Presbyterians emphasized education, theological debate, and revival. Tensions between revivalist (New Side) and traditional (Old Side) factions led to a split in 1741, but they reunited in 1758.

Growth and Division (1800s)
As the U.S. expanded westward, so did the Presbyterian Church. But theological and social issues—especially slavery—led to schisms:

  • In 1837, the denomination split into Old School and New School branches.

  • The Civil War further divided Presbyterians into northern and southern churches:

    • The Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (PCUSA) in the North.

    • The Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America, later renamed the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (PCUS), in the South.

20th Century: Reunions and Modernization
In 1958, two northern branches—the United Presbyterian Church of North America and the PCUSA—merged to form the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (UPCUSA).
In 1983, the UPCUSA and the southern PCUS reunited to form the current Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the largest Presbyterian denomination in the U.S

Contemporary Issues and Identity (1983–Present)
Since the 1980s, the PC(USA) has emphasized social justice, ecumenical cooperation, and inclusive theology. The church has faced internal disagreements over ordination of women (approved in 1956), LGBTQ+ inclusion, and biblical interpretation. Many churches who did not largely agree with some of the decisions to include women, LGBTQ or more progressive biblical interpretations stayed in the denomination, as the polity allows for individual church sessions to set the culture of each local church. Some congregations chose to depart for more conservative bodies (e.g., ECO and the PCA), not wanting to be associated in any way with the ordination of women or LGBTQ inclusion.


Despite declining membership, the PC(USA) remains a vital voice in American Protestantism, deeply rooted in Reformed theology, education, and a connectional polity that seeks to balance tradition with reform. Several well-regarded private colleges and retreat centers are associated with the PCUSA.

A Summary Timeline

Year

Event

1509

John Calvin born in France

1541

Calvin begins Geneva Reforms

1560

Scottish Parliament establishes Presbyterian Church of Scotland

1646

Westminster Confession of Faith written in England

1660

Restoration of monarchy; renewed persecution of Presbyterians

1690s–1700s

Scots-Irish migration to America

1706

First presbytery in America (Philadelphia)

1789

First General Assembly of the PCUSA

Notable PC(USA)-Affiliated Colleges & Universities by Region

Northeast & Mid-Atlantic

Southeast & South

Midwest

  • Alma College (Alma, MI)

  • Blackburn College (Carlinville, IL)

  • Buena Vista University (Storm Lake, IA)

  • Carroll University (Waukesha, WI)

  • Coe College (Cedar Rapids, IA)

  • Illinois College (Jacksonville, IL)

  • Monmouth College (Monmouth, IL)

  • Muskingum University (New Concord, OH)

West & Plains

  • Hastings College (Hastings, NE)

  • Rocky Mountain College (Billings, MT)

 Highlights and Quick Notes

Full List (per 2024 APCU PDF)

Agnes Scott, Alma, Arcadia, Austin, Belhaven, Blackburn, Buena Vista, Carroll, Centre, Coe, College of Idaho, College of Wooster, Davidson, Davis & Elkins, Eckerd, Hanover, Hastings, Illinois College, Johnson C. Smith, King, Lafayette, Lees‑McRae, Lyon, Macalester, Mary Baldwin, Maryville, Millikin, Missouri Valley, Monmouth, Muskingum, Presbyterian College (SC), Queens Univ. of Charlotte, Rhodes, Rocky Mountain, Schreiner, St. Andrews Univ., Stillman, Trinity Univ. (San Antonio), Universidad Interamericana (PR), Univ. of Dubuque, Univ. of Jamestown (ND), Univ. of the Ozarks, Univ. of Pikeville, Univ. of Tulsa, Warren Wilson, Waynesburg, Westminster (MO & PA), Whitworth, William Peace, Wilson College CollegeXpress+4Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)+4presbyterianmission.org+4

From Geneva to the Highlands to the New World: A Narrative of Presbyterian Origins

1. A Fire Kindled in Geneva: John Calvin and the Reformed Tradition

In the 16th century, as the flames of the Protestant Reformation spread across Europe, one of its most enduring branches was forged in the city of Geneva under the leadership of John Calvin (1509–1564). A French lawyer turned reformer, Calvin fled Catholic persecution and found refuge in the Swiss city, where he began to reshape Christian theology, worship, and church governance.

Calvin taught that the church should reflect the order and wisdom of God, not the corrupt hierarchy of princes, popes, or indulgence-selling priests. The community of faith, he believed, should be governed by elders chosen for their spiritual maturity, not their birth or wealth—a model drawn from the New Testament. His work created a new center of theological and ecclesial gravity in Europe.

Key Tenets of the Reformed Tradition (Calvinist Theology)

  • Sovereignty of God: God is supreme over all aspects of life.

  • Authority of Scripture: The Bible is the ultimate guide for faith and life.

  • Total Depravity: Humans are inherently flawed and in need of grace.

  • Salvation by Grace Alone: Not earned, but received through faith.

  • The Priesthood of All Believers: No spiritual hierarchy—each believer has direct access to God.

  • Covenant Theology: God’s relationship with humanity is rooted in covenant, not coercion.

  • Presbyterian Polity: Churches governed by a body of elders (presbyters), not bishops.

Thunder in the North: John Knox and the Scottish Reformation

Among those deeply shaped by Calvin’s teaching was John Knox, a fiery Scottish preacher who had once been a Catholic priest. After a period of exile during which he studied in Geneva, Knox returned to Scotland in 1559, where the church was enmeshed in corruption, and ecclesial power was tied tightly to the nobility and the monarchy.

Knox’s sermons—blistering, bold, and often politically dangerous—ignited a movement. With support from Scottish nobles disillusioned with both the moral failings of the Roman Catholic Church and foreign interference from France, Knox’s Reformation took hold.

Major Social and Political Complaints in 16th-Century Scotland

  • Clerical corruption: Wealthy bishops and immoral clergy, often out of touch with the people.

  • Foreign control: Catholic influence tied to alliances with France, threatening Scottish sovereignty.

  • Economic injustice: The Church owned vast land and resources while common people suffered.

  • Lack of access to Scripture: Services in Latin and few Bibles meant ordinary people were cut off from understanding their own faith.

  • Oppressive hierarchy: A desire for spiritual and political self-governance drove many reform-minded Scots.

In 1560, the Scottish Parliament, influenced by Knox and his allies, abolished papal authority and adopted the Scots Confession—establishing the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.

Structural Innovations

  • Parish-centered worship: Centered on Scripture, preaching, and education.

  • Session, presbytery, synod, and General Assembly: A layered, representative model of church governance.

  • Emphasis on literacy and education: So all people could read Scripture for themselves.

 Across the Sea: From Persecution to Pilgrimage

While the Scottish Reformation took root, tensions brewed in England. The Reformed-minded Puritans and Presbyterians often clashed with the Anglican establishment, especially under monarchs who enforced episcopal rule and uniform worship.

In the 1600s, many Scottish Presbyterians were exiled or migrated to Northern Ireland (the Ulster Plantation), forming a new, tight-knit community of Scots-Irish Presbyterians. They held fiercely to their Reformed faith, often at great cost.

Eventually, in the late 1600s and early 1700s, thousands of Scots-Irish immigrants crossed the Atlantic to seek religious freedom, economic opportunity, and a chance to govern their churches without state interference. They settled in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and throughout the Appalachians, bringing their ministers, Bibles, and polity with them.

Key Events in the American Story

  • 1706 – First Presbytery established in Philadelphia by seven ministers.

  • 1717 – Creation of the Synod of Philadelphia.

  • 1789 – First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., with John Witherspoon (a signer of the Declaration of Independence) as moderator.

Lasting Legacy: Presbyterian Identity Today

The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) is the largest Presbyterian denomination in the United States and continues to embody the Reformed tradition in a modern, democratic form. It retains a commitment to:

  • Connectional polity (shared leadership among sessions, presbyteries, synods, and General Assembly)

  • Worship centered on Word and Sacrament

  • Theological education

  • Social justice rooted in the gospel

Though the context has changed, the cry for integrity in leadership, freedom in worship, and grace as the heartbeat of salvation still echoes from Geneva to Scotland to the hills of Appalachia—and into the sanctuary of every PC(USA) congregation.

A Snapshot: How We Lead and Serve: Presbyterian Polity in the Local Church

In the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), we believe that God calls communities—not just individuals—to discern, lead, and serve.

At the heart of our way of being church is a distinctive form of governance called Presbyterian polity, grounded in both Scripture and Reformed theology. It is a structure that reflects our trust in the Holy Spirit working through groups of people together – communities - rather than through any one singular voice or authority.

The Session: Shared Leadership with Elders at the Table

Each PC(USA) congregation is governed by a Session, a body of ruling elders elected by the congregation and ordained to spiritual leadership. The Session is not just an administrative board—it is a spiritual body, entrusted with the mission, care, and governance of the congregation. Together with the pastor, the elders listen for God’s guidance, set ministry priorities, and ensure the church stays faithful to its calling.

  • Presbyterians often say, “We do the work of the church by committee.”
    This may not always be fast. It’s sometimes slow, occasionally messy—but the point is not efficiency. The point is community.

    • We believe decisions are better when made in prayerful conversation, with many voices and diverse gifts around the table.

    • Committee work can be both difficult and rewarding. In committee we learn to listen, to be heard, and we learn that our way of seeing things is not the only way. We learn that relationship in God is more powerful that “being right” individually. We learn to negotiate. We learn to learn from each other, to have boundaries, to speak difficult things from the heart and with love.

    • Committees are not obstacles to action; they are expressions of shared responsibility and trust.

Most of the work of the church—whether it’s worship planning, mission outreach, or nurturing the spiritual life of children and youth—is carried out by committees empowered by the Session. These committees serve “at the pleasure of the Session,” meaning they are accountable to session, but also trusted to carry out their work with creativity and care by session.

The Pastor: Minister, Moderator, Prophet, and Priest

The pastor in a Presbyterian church holds a unique and sacred role—not as a CEO or ruler, but as a Minister of Word and Sacrament who leads alongside ruling elders, not above them. The pastor’s authority is not over people, but in the preaching of the Word, the teaching of Scripture, and the administration of the Sacraments. In these matters, the pastor acts with a particular calling to proclaim the gospel with freedom, courage, and integrity.

  • The pastor moderates the Session, facilitating meetings with a voice but not a vote—except in rare cases.

  • Worship is led by the pastor but often shaped collaboratively with a worship committee, musicians, and lay leaders.

  • The pastor is a guide and source of spiritual nurture and pastoral care.

This model reflects our conviction that no single individual speaks for God alone. Instead, we seek the voice of the Spirit together—through the Word, through prayer, and through the community gathered.

Connectional Church: Local Congregations, Shared Mission

Presbyterian churches are never independent islands. We are connected to one another in a larger body:

  • Congregations belong to presbyteries—regional councils made up of ministers and ruling elders from local churches.

  • Presbyteries belong to synods, and together they make up the General Assembly, the national expression of the PC(USA).

This structure allows us to be both bottom-up and top-down:

  • Bottom-up: Local churches elect elders and ministers, initiate mission, and participate in discernment.

  • Top-down: Presbyteries provide guidance, support, and oversight—ensuring accountability and shared theological vision.

All of this flows from our belief that Jesus Christ is the true head of the Church, and that every part of the body matters. When we govern by committee, we are saying: The Spirit speaks not only through one strong or charismatic individual, but also through the quiet, the wise, the many.

A Theology of Shared Governance

Presbyterian polity is not just a structure; it is a theological statement about the priesthood of all believers, the communal nature of the Church, and the sovereignty of God. In this way of leading:

  • We honor the dignity of every voice.

  • We resist the temptation to center power in one person.

  • We build a church that is not only ordered, but embodied—a church where we listen, wait, wrestle, and walk forward together.

J .
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